The list of the periods of development reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and adulthood that will be explored in this book, including physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes. One principle is physical growth and taking care of your body. Extending on the premise of multidirectionality, Baltes also argued that development is influenced by the joint expression of features of growth (gain) and decline (loss). What types of development are involved in each of these three domains, or areas, of life? Social cognitive theory (social learning theory). This has been exemplified in numerous studies, including Nesselroade and Baltes, showing that the level and direction of change in adolescent personality development was influenced as strongly by the socio-cultural settings at the time (in this case, the Vietnam War) as age-related factors. For example,in adolescence, puberty consists of physiological and physical changes with changes in hormone levels,the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics, alterations in height and weight, and several other bodily changes. For example,in adolescence, puberty consists of physiological and physical changes with changes in hormone levels,the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics, alterations in height and weight, and several other bodily changes. Development is Sequential 4. Consider friendshipa 6-year-old may think that a friend is someone with whom they can play and have fun. The principles of developmental psychology outlined by Paul Baltes suggest that development is (1) lifelong, (2) multidimensional, (3) multidirectional, (4) involves gains and losses, (5) plastic, and that developmental psychology is (6) multidisciplinary. Urie Bronfenbrenners theory stressing the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments, or ecological systems. Healthy habits with nutrition and exercise are also important at every age and stage across the lifespan. Child development theories focus on explaining how children change and grow over the course of childhood. Nonnormative influences are unpredictable and not tied to a certain developmental time in a persons development or to a historical period. Development is Gradual 3. These developmental theories center on various aspects of growth, including social, emotional, and cognitive development. Members of a cohort have experienced the same historical events and cultural climates which have an impact on the values, priorities, and goals that may guide their lives. Continuous development views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills (Figure 2). Beyond our basic genotype, however, there is a deep interaction between our genes and our environment. LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE: "There is a range of principles which have been applied to the process of human development through the ages, the life-span perspective is one of those." Cite this page . Development Proceeds from General to Specific 6. Another is finding one's own way in life, whether it be having a family or pursuing a career. It included highly rewarding novel tasks that required attention control and became progressively more difficult to perform. Many of us are familiar with the height and weight charts that pediatricians consult to estimate if babies, children, and teens are growing within normative ranges of physical development. Most Traits are Correlated in Development and Others. Consider a young boys concerns if he grew up in the United States during World War IIlets call him Henry. This is the scientific study of how and why peoplechange or remain the same over time. Undesired development or behaviors could potentially be prevented or changed. Extending on the premise of multidirectionality, Baltes also argued that development isinfluenced by the joint expression of features of growth (gain) and decline (loss)[1] This relation between developmental gains and losses occurs in a direction to selectively optimize particular capacities. There are many theorists that have made, and continue to make, a profound contribution to this area of psychology, amongst whom is Erik Erikson who developed a model of eight stages of psychological development. The study of human development is a rich and varied subject. Remembering that development is a lifelong process helps us gain a wider perspective on the meaning and impact of each event. Plasticity is imperative to current research because the potential for intervention is derived from the notion of plasticity in development. Closed captioning available. But economic conditions change in the mid-1960s and through the 1970s. Henrys employment as an engineer eventually becomes difficult as a result of downsizing in the defense industry. The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. PYD emphasizes the strengths of youth, promoting their development physically, personally, socially, emotionally, intellectually, and spiritually. Is there just one course of development or are there many different courses of development? It spans across several fields. Each of these systems inevitably interact with and influence each other in every aspect of the childs life,from the most intimate level to the broadest. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society. Neuronal changes to the limbic system and prefrontal cortex of the brain, which begin in puberty lead to the development of self-regulation, and the ability to consider the consequences of ones actions (though recent brain research reveals that this connection will continue to develop into early adulthood). This video gives a summary ofPiagets theory and his four stages of cognitive development. A 16-year old may seek friends who can help them gain status or popularity. Theories offer more general explanations about behavior and events. Low-income children perform significantly more poorly than their middle- and high-income peers on a number of educational variables: They have significantly lower standardized test scores, graduation rates, and college entrance rates, and they have much higher school dropout rates. Bronfenbrenners ecological theory stresses the importance of studying children in the context of multiple environments because children typically find themselvesenmeshed simultaneously in different ecosystems. Continuous; current behaviors have been shaped over multiple generations based on successful survival and reproduction, Both; behavioral genetics show similarities across the species, but our unique family history also plays a role in development, Both; our genetic history and biological impulses interact with life experiences to produce individual development and development across the history and future of the species, Charles Darwin, David Buss, Konrad Lorenz, Robert Sapolsky, Describe human development and its three domains: physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development, Explain key human development issues about the nature of change: continuous/discontinuous, one course/multiple courses, and nature/nurture, Describe the basic periods of human development, Describe theories as they relate to lifespan development, Explain Bronfenbrenners bioecological model, Contrast the main psychological theories that apply to human development, Describe Baltes lifespan perspective with its key principles about development, Explain what is meant by development being lifelong, multidimensional, and multidirectional, Explain contextual influences on development, Development occurs across ones entire life or is, Consider your cohort. Child Development Theories of Freud, Erickson, and More. Development occurs in context and varies from person to person, depending on factors such as a persons biology, family, school, church, profession, nationality, and ethnicity. Memory abilities and different forms of intelligence tend to change with age. How might cultural differences influence interactions between teachers and students, nurses and patients, or other relationships? As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests. It can take complex, interconnected issues and narrow them down to the essentials. A theory about how people come to gradually acquire, construct, and use knowledge and information. For example, in cross-cultural studies of language development, children from around the world reach language milestones in a similar sequence (Gleitman & Newport, 1995). Cognitive change is noticeable when we compare how 6-year olds, 16-year olds, and 46-year olds think and reason, for example. Butthese are not the only types of changes taking place; there are also cognitive changes, including the development of advanced cognitive faculties such as the ability to think abstractly. Standard Area: Life Span Development Content Standards: After concluding this unit, students understand: 1. Culture is an extremely important context for human development and understanding development requires being able to identify which features of development are culturally based. During childhood, individuals have difficulty effectively regulating their actions and impulsive behaviors. Boys collecting old tires for rubber during WWII. A significant aspect of the aging process is cognitive decline. Concerning adolescent development, the age-graded influences would help to explain the similarities within a cohort, the history-graded influences would help to explain the differences between cohorts, and the nonnormative influences would explain the idiosyncrasies of each adolescents individual development. The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used. The study of development traditionally focused almost exclusively on the changes occurring from conception to adolescence and the gradual decline in old age; it was believed that the five or six decades after adolescence yielded little to no developmental change at all. These findings suggest that cognitive function, particularly memory, can be significantly improved in mature adults with age-related cognitive decline by using brain plasticity-based training methods. Although he called his field genetic epistemology, stressing the role of biological determinism, he also assigned great importance to experience. The main goals of those involved in studying human development are to describe and explain changes. It can take complex, interconnected issues and narrow them down to the essentials. Sigmund Freuds model of psychosexual development grew out of his psychoanalytic approach to human personality and psychopathology. Watson was the founder of the field of behaviorism, which emphasized the role of nurture, or the environment, in human development. This approach is based on several key principles: Development occurs across one's entire life, or is lifelong. The areas of influence that Baltes thought most important to the development of intelligence were health, education, and work. Throughout psychological history and still in the present day, three key issues remain among which developmental theorists often disagree. It means that we are influenced by when and where we live. Learning by the association of a response with a stimulus; a person comes to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response. Over the course of puberty, neuronal changes modify this unregulated behavior by increasing the ability to regulate emotions and impulses. Henrys wife, Patricia, begins to work to help the family financially and to overcome her boredom with being a stay-at-home mother. Life-span perspective is defined as using multiple frameworks to determine human development. TRADITIONAL LIFE-SPAN f APPROACHES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1.Development is lifelong. Watch this video from Big Brothers Big Sisters of America to learn more about the power of mentoring. Development occurs in context and varies from person to person, depending on factors such as a persons biology, family, school, church, profession, nationality, and ethnicity. Baltes identified three types of influences that operate throughout the life course: normative age-graded influences, normative history-graded influences, and nonnormative influences. That is why it is suggested explicitly by lifespan researchers that a combination of disciplines is necessary to understand development. LIFE-SPAN 4.Development is contextual. What other methods or interventions could be used to decrease the achievement gap? Over the course of puberty, neuronal changes modify this unregulated behavior by increasing the ability to regulate emotions and impulses. That means that we wont just learn about one particular age period by itself; we will learn about each age period, recognizing how it is related to both previous developments and later developments. Psychologist Erik Erikson suggests that we struggle with issues of trust, independence, and intimacy at various points in our lives (we will explore this thoroughly throughout the course.). Give at least one application of each principle in the teaching- learning process. Development is Continuous 2. Acohort is a group of people who are born at roughly the same time period in a particular society. The principles are: 1. Which period or stage of development are you in right now? Culture is learned from parents, schools, churches, media, friends, and others throughout alifetime. Continuous; learning is ongoing without distinct stages, Many courses; learned behaviors vary by person. How much is due to genetics and how much is due to environmental influences and experiences (both within our personal control and beyond)? Both congenitally blind adults and sighted adults could locate a sound presented in front of them with precision but people who are blind were clearly superior in locating sounds presented laterally. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, self-esteem, and relationships. An attempt by researchers has been made to examine whether research on the nature of development suggests a specific metatheoretical worldview. In Baltes theory, the paradigm of contextualism refers to the idea that three systems of biological and environmental influences work together to influence development. What is life span and enumerate the subdivisions of life span? Members of a cohort have experienced the same historical events and cultural climates which have an impact on the values, priorities, and goals that may guide their lives. Physical development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness. Figure 1. Perhaps you have three: childhood, adulthood, and old age. Any single disciplines account of development across the lifespan would not be able to express all aspects of this theoretical framework. we need to rely on a systematic approach to understanding behavior, based on observable events and the scientific method. Dating, romance, cohabitation, marriage, having children, and finding work or a career are all parts of the transition into adulthood. Source: Paul Baltes, as cited in Santrock (2002) f PRINCIPLES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT There are various theories pertaining to each domain of development, and often theorists and researchers focus their attention on specific periods of development (with most traditionally focusing on infancy and childhood; some on adolescence). The 20th century marked the formation of qualitative distinctions between children and adults. In essence, lifespan theories explain observable events in a meaningful way. In sum, a childs experiences are shaped by larger forces such as the family, school, religion, and culture. Any single disciplines account of development across the lifespan would not be able to express all aspects of this theoretical framework. This approach is based on several key principles: Lifelong developmentmeans that development is not completedin infancy or childhood or at any specific age; it encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to death. Contrast this with some developing countries where menstruation is not publicly addressed, or where girls on their period are forced to miss school due to limited access to feminine products or unjust attitudes about menstruation. In contrast, theorists who view development as discontinuous believe that development takes place in unique stages and that it occurs at specific times or ages. As Henry grows up and has a family of his own, he is motivated by images of success tied to his past experience: he views a successful man as one who can provide for his family financially, who has a wife who stays at home and cares for the children, and children who are respectful but enjoy the luxury of days filled with school and play without having to consider the burdens of societys struggles. Discontinuous; there are distinct stages of development, One course; stages are universal for everyone, Both; natural impulses combined with early childhood experiences impact development. It included highly rewarding novel tasks that required attention control and became progressively more difficult to perform. For example, self-regulation is one domain of puberty which undergoes profound multidirectional changes during the adolescent period. He believed that humans developed in stages throughout their lifetimes and this would affect their behaviors. However, as Ach children become older, they are allowed more freedom to move about, and by about age 9, their motor skills surpass those of U.S. children of the same age: Ach children are able to climb trees up to 25 feet tall and use machetes to chop their way through the forest (Kaplan & Dove, 1987). They are not sheltered from the concerns of society; they see television broadcasts in their own living room of the war in Vietnam and they fear the draftthey are part of a middle-class youth culture that is very visible and vocal. As an example, recently researchers have been analyzing how other senses compensate for the loss of vision in blind individuals. So much of what developmental theorists have described in the past has been culturally bound and difficult to apply to various cultural contexts. A hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from a theory. Likewise, whether or not development is best viewed as occurring in stages or rather as a gradual and cumulative process of change has traditionally been up for debate a question of continuity versus discontinuity. It is organized into five levels of external influence: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. Butthese are not the only types of changes taking place; there are also cognitive changes, including the development of advanced cognitive faculties such as the ability to think abstractly. The term ecological refers to a natural environment; human development is understood through this model as a long-lasting transformation in the way one perceives and deals with the environment. This longstanding question is known in psychology as the nature versus nurture debate. There are so many different observations about childhood, adulthood, and development in general that we use theories to help organize all of the different observable events or variables. He believed, based on Lockes environmentalist position, that human behavior can be understood in terms of experiences and learning. Sternberg describes contextual intelligence as the ability to understand what is called for in a situation (Sternberg, 1996). This chapter will briefly describe the seven major theoretical perspectives or theories on human development: . Psychologists, sociologists, neuroscientists, anthropologists, educators, economists, historians, medical researchers, and others may all be interested and involved in research related to the normative age-graded, normative history-graded, and nonnormative influences that help shape development. For example, the developmental timing of events can affect individuals in different ways because of their current level of maturity and understanding. Infancy (i.e., the first 2 years of life) 5. All of this occurs within the relevant historical context and timeframe, or chronosystem. Physical development also includes puberty, sexual health, fertility, menopause, changes in our senses, and primary versus secondary aging. Teens typically struggle to become more independent from their parents. What are the principles of human behavior? 7.11: Factors Influencing Attraction. Mahncke and colleagues developed a brain plasticity-based training program that induced learning in mature adults experiencing age-related decline. The environmental factors, health and education, have been suggested by Neiss and Rowe to have as much effect on intelligence as inherited intelligence. In this module, well examine these questions and learn about the major stages of development and what kind of developmental tasks and transitions we might expect along the way. A theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. Developmental theories provide a set of guiding principles and concepts that describe and explain human development. Youths in this program improved in school attendance, parental relations, academic performance, and peer emotional support[2]Substance use and problem behaviors were also reported as either prevented or reduced. Wed love your input. Recall that three key issues considered in human development examine if development is continuous or discontinuous, if it is the same for everyone or distinct for individuals (one course of development or many), and if development is more influenced by nature or by nurture. Rewards and punishments can strengthen or discourage behaviors. Agency: Individuals construct their own lives through the choices and actions they take within the opportunities and constraints of history and social circumstance. 4. Catalano, R., Berglund, L., Ryan, J., Lonczak, H., & Hawkins, D. (2002). They begin babbling at about the same age and utter their first word around 12 months old. Many lifespan developmentalists use an eclectic approach, drawing on several perspectives at the same time because the same developmental phenomenon can be looked at from a number of perspectives. These findings suggest that when vision is absent in development, the auditory cortices in the brain recruit areas that are normally devoted to vision, thus becoming further refined. No single age period is more crucial, characterizes, or dominates human development. These mesosystems both influence and are influenced by the larger contexts of the community, referred to as the exosystem. Cultureis often referred to as a blueprint or guideline shared by a group of people that specifies how to live. Are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we who we are because of nurture (our environment and culture)? There are solutions to this problem. Our actions, beliefs, and values are a response to the circumstances surrounding us. 3. Welcome to the study of lifespan development! Neuronal changes to the limbic system and prefrontal cortex of the brain, whichbegin in puberty lead to the development of self-regulation, and the ability to consider the consequences of ones actions (though recent brain research reveals that this connection will continue to develop into early adulthood). Lifespan Perspective. Is development essentially the same, or universal, for all children (i.e., there is one course of development) or does development follow a different course for each child, depending on the childs specific genetics and environment (i.e., there are many courses of development)? This has been exemplified in numerous studies, including Nesselroade and Baltes, showing that the level and direction of change in adolescent personality development was influenced as strongly by the socio-cultural settings at the time (in this case, the Vietnam War) as age-related factors. Baltes argues that a dynamic interaction of these factors is what influences an individuals development. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them. Baltes, P. (1987). His book became highly criticized but was still influential in promoting more research into early childhood behavior and development. Paul Baltes identified several underlying principles of the lifespan perspective (Baltes, 1987; Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006). What is meant by the word context? Throughout this course, we will describe observations during development, then examine how theories provide explanations for why these changes occur. Lifespan Development by Julie Lazzara is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. It describes cognitive development through four distinct stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal. A theory is a simplified explanation of the world that attempts to explain how variables interact with each other. Theories that emphasizes an individuals inherent drive towards self-actualization and contend that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their own behavior. The notion of plasticity emphasizes that there are many possible developmental outcomes and that the nature of human development is much more open and pluralistic than originally implied by traditional views; there is no single pathway that must be taken in an individuals development across the lifespan. Development is multidimensional, meaning it involves the dynamic interaction of factors like physical, emotional, and psychosocial development Development is multidirectional and results in gains and losses throughout life Scholars have noted that this lack of effective regulation often results in children engaging in behaviors without fully considering the consequences of their actions. Baltes wrote that these three influences operate throughout the life course, their effects accumulate with time, and, as a dynamic package, they are responsible for how lives develop. It seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture. Gain status or popularity frameworks to determine human development are to describe and explain human development school, religion and..., however, there is a result of our genetic inheritance from our.. 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